Obesity and Smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Obesity and Smoking - Essay Example 935). Smoking has been estimated to account for 8% of total healthcare costs in the US, 3.8% in Canada, and 3.7% in Germany (Chang et al, 2005, pp. 2122 -2125). Dramatic variations in rates and trends of smoking are evident for specific subpopulations of women in Canada. There has recently been a disturbing trend whereby smoking rates among teenaged girls exceeded smoking rates among teenaged boys for the first time. Among girls aged 15 to 19, 25.1% reported being daily smokers in 1998 - 1999 and 26% in 2001, as compared with 18.5% and 20% respectively for boys in this age group (Chang et al, 2005, pp.2126 -2128). Girls also started smoking at a younger age, 41% of girls aged 15 to 17 reporting having smoked their first cigarette before age 13 as compared with 29% of boys. In the last decade, daily consumption increased for girls aged 15 to 19 from 11.5 cigarettes per day in 1990 to 12.7 cigarettes per day in 1999; this has decreased to 10.8 in 2001 (Statistics Canada, 2000, pp. 238- 245). In this paper we would be discussing the two issues faced by the Canadians - Obesity and Smoking. The simplest definition of obesity is an excessive amount of body fat. It must be distinguished from overweight, which refers to an excess of body weight relative to height. Obesity is probably best assessed by the visual judgment of an experienced observer. If a man, woman, or child looks fat when undressed, he or she is probably obese. Measurement of sub scapular and triceps skin-fold thicknesses with calipers is the simplest objective way to assess body fat. Data from the 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) indicate an obesity rate for Canada of 23.1% and an overweight rate of 59.1%. U.S. data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999 -2002 show that 65.1% of the American adult population is overweight and 30.4% are obese (Hedley et al, 2004, pp. 2847- 2848). The problem of obesity does not affect all populations equally, particularly in the U.S. The obesity rate in the U.S. is higher for women at 33.2% compared to the rate for men (27.6%). By race, these gender differences are exacerbated. F or example, the obesity rate among non-Hispanic white women is 30.7% compared to a rate of 49% among non-Hispanic black American women, whereas obesity rates across race for men do not differ significantly (Hedley et al, 2004, pp. 2849- 2850). In Canada, obesity rates do not vary substantially by sex (23.2% for women and 22.9% for men). However, obesity rates are higher for white women (24.8%) and white men (25 .5%) compared to their non-white counterparts (Hedley et al, 2004, p.2849). An estimated 80-90% of persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Canadian population are overweight or obese. Obesity is also a growing problem in children with type 1 diabetes (Hypponen et al, 2000, pp.1755-1760). Furthermore, intensive insulin therapy is associated with weight gain. Weight loss has been shown to improve glycemic control by increasing insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake and diminishing hepatic glucose output (Chou et al, 2004, pp. 565-587). The risk of death from all causes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and some forms of cancer increases with excessive body fat (Calle et al,

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Poject)1 Assignment

Marketing Planning and Strategy (Poject)1 - Assignment Example technologies apply in the teaching methodology and curriculum development that include all-time internet connectivity, online courseware (Blackboard), and online registration (PMU, 2014). PMU molds its students to become academic, social, and economic achievers. In admitting students, PMU follows the Saudi Arabian governing rules and regulation of higher education without consideration to nationality geographical origin, or religion (PMU, 2014). Under the leadership of university Deanships, PMU offers various courses and adopts the North America model that relies on the credit hour system to value such academic programs (PMU, 2014). Moreover, the university Deanships plans and executes the organization’s strategic plans through the help of the staff, sponsors, management, faculty, government, students, and nongovernmental organizations (PMU, 2014). Indeed, the organization offers scholarship to bright students in partnership with various donors. By 2012, the organization planned to admit about 5,500 students where the financial aid and the tuition fees paid by students derive financial stability and management in the university. PMU faces immense competition from public universities like King Saud University and King Abdulaziz University (4 International Colleges & Universities, 2014). In seeking to achieve its mission and vision, the university follows a defined marketing plan and strategy. Prince Mohammad bin Fahd University has a long-term vision of ensuring that the university achieves a unique and distinguished recognition of becoming a higher education institution with resultant benefits to the students, community, and administration. PMU seeks to achieve this by preparing students to become future professionals in various fields of human knowledge and its application. Moreover, the university aims at adopting new technological methodologies and innovations to pursue its objectives. Prince Mohammad bin Fahd University seeks to enhance and develop

In Defence of Harry Flashman Essay Example for Free

In Defence of Harry Flashman Essay It is understandable why the first mention of the character of Harry Flashman – the opportunistic philanderer of his Majestys service who lied and cheated his cowardly way through the Victorian pages of his fictional memoirs by George MacDonald Fraser – is enough to deter the browsing lady, though far be it from anyone to say it should. Since patterns of book-buying snake across the sexes like a flailing sidewinder, it would be hopeless to say as to where on the shop shelf the hand might lay to rest. Nevertheless, for a series of stories far too overlooked for the publics common good, what could the otherwise fairer sex also find to appreciate in a man whose charm seems as fictitious as the women who fall for it? To put it more simply: can this man – to borrow the blurb – be all bad? If the name â€Å"Flashman† is shouting forward from the back of your mind, dare the â€Å"Lord Flashheart† be named as the bothering heckler? Dont think him an unwanted associate, for Blackadders slavering womaniser could be seen as an exaggeration of the â€Å"Flashman persona† and certainly close to what Harry himself may have become had he not, by hand and boot of queen and empire, been thrown into the Flemingesque scenarios he haphazardly emerged from, some the wiser and better-shaped. Unlike the all-consuming debauchery of his comedic counterpart, Harrys lechery is merely a tempered impetus; punctuating his desire for the English comforts that makes for the only form of patriotism youll see in him, if you can call it patriotism – the patriotism of Bond it most certainly is not. What differs Harry from James is awareness, and when taking stock, the idiom trumps the ammo. It would be daft to credit Harrys decision making with the weighing of political consequence, however; that would be a laughable excuse; something he doesnt begin to admit. Its fear that has his mind running back to the jolly English riff-raff and the spread of beds that await. Though isnt to think with your legs the best strategy for the reporter? Reluctant maybe, Harry is a better reporter than he is a soldier. This cowardice kept him alive til a time when he could afford to admit the truth. Concerning the First Afghan War, the truth about a man, General Elphinestone who single-handedly stripped the meat from his ranks as he rung them through the Khord-Kabul pass on their retreat from Afghanistan. Long after witnessing rom on high, the massacre of the regiments from which he had high-tailed the night before, Flashman verbally guts he whom he declares â€Å"No fate could be bad enough for†: â€Å"I still state unhesitatingly, that for pure, vacillating stupidity, for superb incompetence to command, for ignorance combined with bad judgement in short for the true talent for catastrophe, Elphy outshines all as the greatest military idiot of our own or any other day Now what a sorry waste of insightful wit it would have been to have it lost amidst the idiot pride of a fellow more gallant than Harry. Elphinestone is not alone; Harry considers many of the figures he meets to be – to varying degrees – morons, despite his care to concede a grace here and there. Its no surprise that he met such a top-heavy pile of fools; he was, after all, involved in some of the worst disasters of British imperialism all the more reason to flee when he could. But you know the fastidious type. Perhaps youve a friend whom fits this description, in which case, youll understand how empowering it feels to have them praise you – youre worth a cheer! When chance encounter pairs Harry with one he considers of rare dignity, you too, as the reader, hold them as praiseworthy, or rather, worthy of investigation. It was in 1842 when he jumped into the carriage of Lola Montez – an Irish dancer girl turned adventuress of Europe whose life was spent â€Å"playing with kingdoms† as one might romantically say. Her appearances in Royal Flash are glimpses; moments too brief to capture her entirety, yet he alludes to a life beyond the pages with so delicate a respect that one is inspired to follow. Whilst Harry never himself existed, he may as well have. Its very easy to speak of his personality as anything but fictional. Perhaps to no great surprise considering we get to know the fellow through his own confessions, worded not merely to the benefit of his own authenticity, either. The true blue honesty rubs off well onto those he brushes shoulders with. Its what we have to thank this bounder for – dramatising without disfiguring a past of characters pallid to most today and enriching the pursuit of history for ourselves. Harry once said about the Earl of Cardigan, that some human faults are military virtues; for Harry, some human faults are literary virtues.

Pestel Analysis For New Type Of Solar Panel Engineering Essay

Pestel Analysis For New Type Of Solar Panel Engineering Essay The purpose of this report is to investigate the external business environment for a new type of solar panel that can be fitted into UK homes to generate energy. The report consists of three parts. The first part of the report gives an introduction into solar energy, the present market size and serious market competitors. The second part presents the four key trends obtained using PESTEL analysis, identifying the factors affecting the start-up of a business. The third section reflects upon the future and the obstacles faced by the solar panel/technology industry in the UK. Information used in this report was gathered using internet services such as Google Scholar. All the websites used are referenced at the end of the report. 1.1 Solar Power and Solar Technology Solar energy was first used in the 1860s [1] by Auguste Mouchout, to produce ice by converting solar energy into mechanical energy. He later connected a refrigeration machine to this system to produce ice. In 1883, Charles Fritz converted solar energy into electrical energy. This was the biggest moment in the history of solar technology as scientists had finally found a ray of hope. Solar energy continued to develop in the 20th century. Solar panels were finally developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories using silicon. By 1990, it was clear that non-renewal fuel would run out and it was essential alternative sources of energy were improved. In the 21st century, solar technology has improved many folds. The conversion rate of solar energy into electrical energy in 1954 was 6% [2]. The facilities present at the Sandia National Laboratories have a conversion rate of 31.25% [3]. Amorphous Solar Cells Crystalline solar PV holds close to 85% of the total market share, leaving the remainder to thin-films [4]. Which are used in a domestic environment. These can be either mounted on roof tops in UK or facing 90 degrees of south. Average solar electricity system cost  £12000 and per kW of electricity cost from  £5000  £8000 but this reduces with time as the system produces more electricity. 1.2 Advantages Producing electricity using solar power provides three main types of benefits: it benefits the environment, the user and the community. Solar power is considered a Green/Clean fuel and renewal. This helps slow down the effects of global warming and keep the environment clean. The benefits for a domestic user are: Cutting the energy bills of the household since electrical energy is being produced from a free source of energy (Sun). Once the initially cost of installation of solar system is covered, the household will have relatively low energy bills. An average UK household can save upto  £140 on energy bills/year [5]. It can provides 24 hour electric supply to a households situated in remote parts of UK If energy has been produced in excess by a domestic user via the solar energy system (SES), then it can be fed back into the national grid. This benefits the community, reduces the use amount of electricity which has to be produced using non-renewal fuels and provides finance for the producer. 1.3 Key UK based Market Competitors Various companies install Solar Electric System (SES) for domestic use. Various non-profit organisation such as Narec [6], Energy Saving Trust UK [7] and The Solar Energy trust UK, promote and support the projects undertaken by companies involved in the solar industry. Microgeneration Certification Scheme [8] ensures that all equipments and services used in the installation of a SES in a domestic surrounding is of the highest standard and is thoroughly examined. http://www.uk-ises.org/ Solar Essence Ltd is one of the leading companies which specialise in solar power/heating [9]. Solar Essence is a MCS approved installer of photovoltaic systems. They were heavily involved in the campaign which led to the Climate Change Act 2008. PV Systems established in 1982[10] is the leading provider for Photovoltaic (PV) Systems in the UK. PV Systems designed and installed UKs first fully integrated PV roof in Oxford, UK in 1995. Since then they have installed over 1000 PV Systems. They also work closely with companies such as Sony, Sharp, Mitsubishi and BP Solar; developing and installing smart PV Systems. PV Systems is too a MCS approved company; maintaining the highest standard of services. Energy Development Co-operative Ltd is a company based in Suffolk, UK since 1997. They specialise in providing off-grid solar systems by setting up SES in remote locations. They provide solar systems for various county councils in UK, Universities (Manchester), the BBC, Intel and many more such companies who are trying to reduce their energy bill. We can expect a boom in the Solar Industry in the next decade as more domestic and industrial users switch to green-fuel. Areas of UK, where sun light is available in abundance can expect new companies providing efficient alternative source of energy via the sun; to start operating in their areas as everyone is a winner in such a venture. 1.4 Market Size for Solar Power in the UK Solar energy can be potentially be a large scale/cheap energy provider for UK, especially in the summer months hence making more energy independent from the East. Across the world, the installing of PV increased from 6000 MW in 2008 to 7.3 GW in 2009. UK is expected to have a market size of 60MW in 2010. In order to get a better idea about potential market size for solar power in the UK for the next decade, a study was conducted by Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes (EEPH). Here are the details: A method calculating the usage of Microgeneration technology was created for an earlier study on energy sources; this method was used by EEPH in order to predict the possible number of new installations of solar energy systems on yearly bases from 2010 2020. This method considered the peoples choice for microgeneration technologies. Below are the findings of the study: PV system is expected to have a market of 200,000units/year in 2020; consumers feel they would benefit greatly via Feed-in-tariff (FIT) and the capital cost to set up PV system could be covered via FIT. This is a very realistic with the improvement in the SES technology and funding from the government. In the present time, solar hot water systems are the most preferred choice(from all the microgeneration technologies presently) by domestic users of solar energy, but are expected to decline as other methods such are hot air technology improvise. The competition to sell SES is heating up in the UK. At present, there are three types of companies fighting for the top spot. Firstly the manufacturers, they are becoming more and more like wholesalers, hence affecting the business model of the wholesalers for solar systems. Manufacturers and wholesalers also have to fight large companies which specialise in installing solar systems. A price war is expected to drag the capital cost down for manufacturing, installing and maintaining. This is however an excellent news for the domestic/industrial consumers of solar power. 2 External Business Environment Analysis Using PESTEL The PESTEL model is made of 6 parts. Its designed to provide assistance to an individual or a group of people, making a business decisions. There are various elements (such as new laws and trade deals) which can affect an organisation; PESTEL is used to divide the elements affecting a business into 6 different categories. The six categories are: Political factors. Economic factors. Social factors. Technological factors. Environmental factors. Legal factors. This part of the report will help identify 4 key trends which are most likely to affect a new business in the field of solar industry. 2.1 Political: Government effect and projects This part of the report focuses on plans set by the government and trade associations; resulting in increased usage of renewal fuel, and predict the effect of these plans. The government has two main goals towards reducing the emission of carbon dioxide. They are: By 2020, aim to generate 20% of all British electric supply via renewal sources of energy and by 2050 cut the carbon dioxide emission by 60% for the UK. The present government towards these targets is shown in Figure 5. Earlier to the government announcement, in 2005 various trade associations consisting of over 550 companies addressed the issue of reducing carbon dioxide emission and increase the use of renewal fuels. By 2025 they expect 25% of UK total energy consumption to be produced using renewal sources of energy. [11] Figure 5[17] Shows the government progress towards its 2050 target A new government scheme, which is going to be introduced in April 2011[12] is set to announce that one in 10 UK homes will have a roof based SES. This will result in saying of upto  £900 a year for then household. The Scottish Government has a scheme promoting and proving grants for anyone using the microgenerator method for producing energy. The government are providing upto[13]  £4000, roughly 30% of the installing cost. As time goes on, more and more households will take up the idea of having PV on their roofs as time would also start running out for the targets set by the government. As UK recovers from recession presently, the young generation would see microgeneration technology as a attractive prospect(also the grant to cover the capital cost) as we might go through another recession in the next ~40 years and being about to reduce your bills in the recession, majorly helps out a household. 2.2 Economic: Prices of non-renewal fuel and average income This section of this report contains analysis of the effect of an increase in the cost of non renewal fuel and a increase in energy bills. It also reflects on the factors influencing financial the decision to invest into a microgeneration technology. A domestic household in the UK uses up about 1.5 to 3kW [13], and solar panels can roughly 50% of the domestic energy requirement. Presently most of the electricity using in the UK is produced by the burning of oil, natural gas and coal. This means an increase in a selling price of oil, natural gas or coal would directly increase the energy bills of a UK household. Figure 1.0 shows the increase and decrease of oil prices in the UK. The X-axis should a time line and the Y-axis shows price/gallon. In the year 2008, energy bills were considered to be at their highest point, especially August 2008. In the next 18 to 20 months, the wholesale price for oil, natural gas and coal fell by 15% 20%. This resulted in Figure 1 Graph displaying the average oil price/month from 2005 ~2010 [14]. In the year 2008, energy bills were considered to be at their highest point, especially August 2008. In the next 18 to 20 months, the wholesale price for oil, natural gas and coal fell by 15% 20%[15]. This resulted in the decrease of electricity prices by a similar margin for retailers. As we continue for relay on limited non-renewal fuels to provide energy, eventually the price of non-renewal fuels will increase, also increasing the average energy household bill. This drive in prices will result in an increase of the usage of renewal fuels, and over time the capital cost to setup will reduce due to improvements in technology, increase in efficiency and competition. New customers in the solar industry will mean a much needed funding will start becoming available in order to research further, the field of solar technology and also lead to a clean fuel based UK. 2.3 Social: Awareness about clean fuel This part of the report reflects on the present efforts being made in order to raise awareness about renewal/clean fuel in the British society. The report also reflects upon the effects of non-renewal sources of energy and their effect on the climate, e.g. Global warming. It is believed that if all of the sunlight reaching planet earth each day was converted into electricity, then the amount of electricity produced would be same as supporting the energy consumption on planet earth, many times over the usual consumption. More and more energy consumers across UK are now keen on using renewal sources of energy. This is due to the various publicity campaigns on saving energy and recycle waste making the public a lot more conscious about their behaviour towards the environment. Things such as the melting of polar ice caps due to global warming and extinction of species of various animals due to unsustainable environment has raised some important questions about human behaviour towards the environment. Figure 2 shows that change in average temperature of Central England compared to the average Global temperature. Figure 2 shows a steady increase in temperature in Central England. It is further expected that the average temperature will rise by 1.4 to 5.8 ° C [16] by the end of the 21st century. In order to keep living in a sustainable environment, we need to change our habits: Recycle close to 100% of the waste Raise awareness about sustainable environment in schools and offices. Use energy saving methods while carrying out day to day tasks. Increase in media coverage about the latest developments in the environment. Better grants and facilities available for a domestic user to switch to solar energy from a non-renewal source of energy. More and more people are now trying their best to reduce their carbon footprint to its minimum. There are various tools available which help you calculate your carbon footprint. Using energy saving light bulbs. Figure 5 provides some evidence that the British people are becoming educated about sustainable living and changing their habits as the carbon dioxide emission is on a decrease. Government is now also educating school children on green fuels and the effects of global warming on our environment by making it part of their education system. This is exceptionally good since those children will already be aware of the issues affecting our environment and will prefer renewal sources of energy as they are aware of the impact on non-renewal sources of energy on the environment. The market prospect looks positive for renewal sources of energy in the next decade, as various projects raise awareness about the effects of carbon dioxide emission on our environment. Both the domestic and the industrial sector are now changing their behaviours towards the environment and government across the world are seriously promoting renewal sources of energy as our environment could be in jeopardy if nothing was done to sustain it. 2.4 Technology: Efficiency rate One of the reasons people do not readily take to renewal sources of energy such as solar power is because they do not consider them to be 100% reliable and have a low efficiency rate (converting solar into electricity). Since 1860, scientists have been trying to address the problem of efficiency rate for solar energy. The solar technology has advanced many folds since 1860, which have made SES, affordable, reliable and low maintenance. Solar technology has been integrated with the thermal-chemical technology [18] in order to increase its efficiency. This hybrid allows users to store heat energy from the sun and convert it to electricity whenever required. This prevents from the loss of heat which was a major problem with traditional SES as they use to lose heat if it was stored for later use. Another advancement in the solar industry has been of the development of the Power Sticker. A power sticker boosts the energy output of a SES by up to 10% [19]. A power sticker sticks on top on a solar cell and prevents solar light from reflecting off from the top of a cell hence trapping the maximum about of sun light. MAKE MY OWN GRAPH ON THE NUMBER OF SES EXPECTED TO BE SOLD BASED ON OIL PRICE [1] http://facts-about-solar-energy.com/solar-energy-history.html [2]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy#Conversion_rates_from_solar_energ y_to_electrical_energy [3] http://www.sandia.gov/ [4] http://www.solar-power-answers.co.uk/solar_cell_types.php [5] http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2010/08/04/49207/uk-is-fastest-growing-solar-energy-market.htm [6] http://www.narec.co.uk/ [7] http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/About-us [8] The Microgeneration Certification Scheme. (2009). Welcome to the Microgeneration Certification Scheme website [online]. Available from: [cited 23/02/09] [9] http://www.ethical-junction.org/profile/solar_essence [10] Department for Business Enterprise Regulatory Reform. (2009). Renewable Energy [online]. Available from: [cited 22/02/09] [11] British Wind Energy Association. (2005) BWEA press release [online]. Available from: [cited 22/02/09] [12] http://www.financialadvice.co.uk/news/household-bills/87515-uk-government-offers-incentives-for-renewable-energy-supply.html http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving/Energyandwatersaving/Renewableandlowcarbonenergy/DG_072593 [14] http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/oil-price [15] http://www.theenergyshop.com/getTariffUpdates.do;jsessionid=DB5D90222582827E01DABE3170A06719 [16] http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/statistics/climate_change/impacts_cc/impacts_cc.aspx [17] http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/statistics/climate_change/gg_emissions/targets/targets.aspx [18] http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/mit-thermo-chemical-solar-power/ [19] http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/power-sticker-boost-solar-power-generation/

Shakespeares Macbeth and Hamlet as Tragic Heroes Essay -- Macbeth ess

Macbeth and Hamlet as Tragic Heroes      Ã‚   William Shakespeare has written many literary works - from his sonnets to his plays, each has it's own individual characteristics.   One popular characteristic that comes from his plays is the tragic hero.   The audience can always relate to the tragic hero and the many trials he faces.   Macbeth and Hamlet are just two of Shakespeare's plays that involve the tragic hero.   Through their nobility, tragic flaws, and dignity Macbeth and Hamlet prove to be tragic heroes.    Macbeth's nobility begins with the title, "thane of Glamis" (1.3.74).   After the original "thane of Cawdor" (1.3.110) dies, Macbeth gains this title as well.   Once the witches reveal the prophecy that Macbeth would be king, Macbeth murders the king and takes the throne for himself.   This reaches the height of Macbeth's nobility.   In the beginning of the play, Macbeth is thought of as a "worthy thane"(2.3.43.), however, this shifts to nothing more than a "hell hound"(5.8.4.) in the end.   Much like Macbeth, Hamlet is very powerful and has a high status in the country.   Hamlet is the Prince of Denmark and was named "most immediate to [the] throne" (1.2.109) by Claudius.   "Lord Hamlet"(1.5.112.) is well respected by the people of Denmark.   Claudius takes this into account and does not immediately kill Hamlet when he finds out he knows the truth about his father's death.   Similar to Macbeth, Hamlet starts out in a more noble position than he ends up.   Once Ha mlet begins to act crazy, others start to believe his "noble mind is here o'erthrown!" (3.1.153.).   The idea that both Hamlet and Macbeth begin with a high position and fall to their defeat leads to the development of the theme power corrupts, an important theme in... ...s honor by exchanging forgiveness with him.   In turn, the dignity of Shakespeare's tragic heroes is reestablished in the end, however, this does not change their fate.    The characteristics of Macbeth and Hamlet lead them to become tragic heroes.   The specific detail of these characteristics make Shakespeare's tragic heroes well defined in each of his plays.   By the time of their deaths, both Macbeth and Hamlet have realized their fate and accepted the consequences like a true tragic hero.    Works Cited and Consulted: Elliot, G.R. "Introduction: On `Macbeth' as Apex of Shakspearean Tragedy" in Shakespearean Criticism, Volume 3. Edited by Laurie Harris Gale: 1984 Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Norman Sanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994 Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Sylvan Barnet. New York: Signet Classic, 1998.

Treasure Island :: Treasure Island Essays

Treasure Island   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Treasure Island is an epic adventure: a tale of pirates, treasure, and exploration of an unknown and mysterious island.   Throughout the course of the book, many lessons are learned that give the reader advice so he/she can better survive in the real world.   The literal Treasure Island itself represents the world in which we live, a world with many hazards and scattered rewards to be found.   The bookà ­s most important lesson to be learned though, is that a solid command of the language and knowing when to use it can make life much easier for a person.   Although this story takes place centuries before our time now, this useful lesson found in it can still be applied to our lives today.      This story is so realistic in its context of the time and its superb character dialogues, that it is very easy for the reader to be transported right in the middle of that age, and right in the company of sea-faring pirates.   The authorà ­s vivid descriptions of Jim, the main character and narrator, the many Pirates and other characters he comes across during his adventures are painstakingly detailed. You can see young Jim's eager and excited face when he finds out he is going on a treasure hunt.   You can also easily picture the rips and bloodstained rags of the pirates, and smell the foul alcohol on their breaths.   The description of the island itself is extremely detailed also, and it seems like the author was looking straight off a geographical map when he wrote the in-depth account of it.    However deep these descriptions of setting and character pull you into the plot, the dialogue the author places in the story is what makes the story more impressive and impossible to escape.   It is so captivating and original to us because we hardly ever hear it, and the phrases are very creative.   An example is this quote from Long John Silver: " But for two year before that, shiver my timbers! the man was starving. He begged, and he stole, and he cut throats, and starved at that, by the powers!"   The colorful language of the book even had me repeating phrases such as this one long after I had finished reading it.

Compare and contrast two theories/models of relationships Essay

There are two main theories applied to relationships, Social Exchange Theory and Equity Theory underpin commonly used behavioural therapies such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Enhanced Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Integrative Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. More recent studies in neuroscience and behaviour and the importance of language have led to the development of Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as an alternative approach. In this essay I will outline the relationship models comparing and contrasting them. I will also introduce and briefly touch on Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as an additional approach to couples counselling and offer considerations which an integrative therapist might need to take into account when offering counselling to couples. Social Exchange Theory explores interactions between two parties by examining the costs and beneï ¬ ts to each. The theory proposed by Homans in 1958 is not exclusively applied to relationships as it also explores all social systems and considers the power balance within those systems. The key point of the theory is that it assumes the two parties are both giving and receiving items of value from each other. Under this theory, relationships are only likely to continue if both parties feel they are coming out of the exchange with more than they are giving up–that is, if there is a positive amount of benefit for both parties involved. Homans’ work to define and understand society was based around the study of human behaviour in terms of cost and reward. This understanding of behaviour is recognised also in the work of Pavlow and Skinner. Homan later went on to apply his theory to relationships proposing in his Disruptive Justice hypothesis that as human beings we expect a relationship to be proportional and if the reward or reciprocity falls short of the cost we become dissatisfied and are more likely to end a relationship. However he also proposed that if one party perceives that the reward outweighs the cost provided but the other half of the relationship is content the relationship will be satisfactory. Homans (1958, P.606) â€Å"Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also  non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them. This process of influence tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may be a cost to him, just as what he gets may be a reward, and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two, profit, tends to a maximum.† In relationships Homan proposed that the reward is more valuable to the individual if it reinforces our self esteem or provides social approval especially in areas of life where we feel insecure and we are drawn to a partner who provides this more than rewards or approval for things we already rate ourselves for. In return we provide the same kind of strokes to our partner reinforcing and boosting their esteem in areas in which they feel most insecure. This is referred to as the principle of satiation. The costs in a fulfilling relationship can be divided into three categories: Investment costs- mental energy and emotional investment , Direct costs – time, financial and material investments and Opportunity costs- personal sacrifices to benefit the relationship. Because all behaviour is costly in that it requires an expenditure of energy on the part of the individual, only those behaviours that are rewarded or that produce the least cost tend to be repeated. Thus, social exchanges take on an air of consistency in that patterns of rewards often remain stable in social relationships. Thibault and Kelley in 1959 developed a 4 stage model of long term relationships based on Homans social exchange theory research. Thibault and Kelley applied two basic concepts to their work. Firstly, that all human interaction is motivated by perceived rewards for the action and second relates to how that influences the nature of relationships. The four stages Sampling, Bargaining, Commitment and Institutionalisation describe how a relationship forms and settles. The theory is predominantly behaviourist and assumes that humans operate as rational beings making decisions based on costs and benefits and that their decision making is motivated by the desire to get basic individual needs met. The first stage in the model, Sampling, is exploring the costs and rewards of various interactions through a number of different friendships and relationships and observing various people in their relationships in order to discern what works and what doesn’t. Psychologists interpret the  social behaviour of adolescents and young people as they flit from one relationship/friendship to another as this sampling stage in action. Bargaining is the natural progression undertaken as a new relationship is under consideration. What’s in it for me? If I do/give this what will I get in return? At this stage attraction based around similar attitudes or constructs are explored with a view to establishing the viability of a possible relationship. Both parties might ask themselves ‘Is it going to be worthwhile investing in this?’ Commitment follows when the two parties know enough about each other to develop the ability to predict each others’ behaviour and therefore elicit reward/pleasure/satisfaction from each other. Institutionalisation is the final stage when the two parties know what to expect from each other and settle into established norms. Equity Theory was developed from Social Exchange Theory by Walster in 1978. Elaine Hatfield worked closely with Walster and Ellen Berscheid in the seventies to understand the human concept of social justice. She says According to Equity theory, people feel most comfortable when they are getting exactly what they deserve from their relationships—no more and certainly no less. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Hatfield, E. & Rapson, R. L. Glyph International 2011. She also says of her work with Walster and Bercheid We believed that a concern with fairness was a cultural universal. We were convinced that during humankind’s long evolutionary heritage, a concern with social justice came to be writ in the mind’s â€Å"architecture† because such values possessed survival value. Such concerns were maintained, we thought, because behaving fairly continued to be a wise and profitable strategy in today’s world. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology. Hatfield, E. & Rapson, R. L. Glyph International 2011. It is recognised that throughout history, societies have had different visions as to what constitutes â€Å"social justice,† â€Å"fairness,† and â€Å"equity† and that these differences still influence perspectives on what social  justice means to the individual and to different societies across the globe. Furthermore their ongoing research takes into consideration the current shifts within society towards gender equality and how this influences relationships. Equity Theory is essentially based around balance within a relationship and can be summarised by 4 key principles. 1.People will try to maximise reward and minimise unpleasant experience in a relationship 2.Rewards can be shared out in different ways and people will decide on what they agree to be a fair system 3.An unfair or inequitable relationship causes personal distress 4.A person in an inequitable relationship will attempt to restore balance and the degree to which the relationship is unfair the harder they will try to restore the balance. Both theories are based around the assumption that relationships develop out of a fair exchange or trading of costs and rewards. Equity Theory although it takes into account societal changes is less concerned with society and is more concerned with individuals and how they perceive justice. The main difference between the two theories is that where Exchange Theory would propose that people would leave a relationship as it is if they felt they were in the advantaged position where rewards are concerned, Equity Theory suggests that the person would be driven to restore the equity within an unbalanced relationship by either reducing their input or increasing their outputs. Exchange Theory is more concerned with under-benefit as a disadvantage but Equity Theory places a greater emphasis on both under-benefit and over-benefit. Under-benefits are likely to provoke a sense of anger and resentment and over-benefits are likely to provoke a sense of guilt. Either scenario can become unbearable to the party experiencing either anger or guilt resulting in them attempting to re-establish balance. If this does not appear to work, it is likely that the relationship will breakdown as an equilibrium has not been reached. Both theories can be useful tools for a therapist in couples counselling in order to discern where a couple is at within their relationship and to help them move towards a state of balance or equity when it has been lost. They both provide the basis from which to look at the behaviour of each  individual within a relationship, to consider how it might have changed and how levels of reciprocity have become distorted leading to the experience of over/under benefit and thus to create tools to realign the behaviour and expectations to help regain balance within the relationship as a whole. There have however been some criticisms of early studies of relationships because they do not consider individual developmental changes which occur in life and which may alter the balance in a relationship or place adequate emphasis on the effects of outside factors which influence an individual’s thinking and consequent behaviour within a relationship, such a family expectations, early role modelling, messages received and fused with about the self from others such as parents. This can be particularly relevant in terms of negative thinking, pain avoidant behaviours, rule following and rigid thinking. In terms of applying behaviour therapy to couples counselling the therapist will want to look at what interpretations a client is making about a situation and the beliefs they hold based on previous experience and how this then shapes their response or behaviour toward their partner. They will look at where the belief was formed through a process of where? When? Who? and What happened? questions in order to help reframe the past and detach it from the present thus helping the client’s view to change and become more rational in the current situation. In Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy a branch of CBT, using the ABC model, the theory distinguishes between rational and irrational beliefs and seeks to correct irrational beliefs which lead to self defeating behaviours. ‘People are not disturbed by things; rather they disturb themselves when they hold irrational beliefs about things. When they hold rational beliefs they respond healthily to things’ CBT tips for a fulfilling life Windy Dryden Hodder Education 2012 Studies of behaviour from the perspective of a Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy can be applied to understanding relationships issues and provide a slightly different perspective  emphasising the nuances of language and how they affect function within a relationship and focussing on values and actions as a priority in terms of repairing harmony. RFT sees language and cognition as relational framing, an operant ability that develops through exposure to many kinds of verbal interactions . ‘The goal of integrative behavioural couples therapy is to ‘help couples shift the context, rather than just the content, of their interactions, embracing conflict as a part of relationships and working toward a greater understanding and acceptance of each other’ ACT & RFT in Relationships Dahl, Stewart, Martell & Caplan Context Press 2013 There are many similarities in this approach, for example applying RFT in the context of relationships considers how individuals derive expectations in relationships based on earlier experiences and from perspectives acquired in the past which lead to the generation of self rules and ideals of what the future ‘should’ look like and how a partner ‘should’ behave. The subtle difference lies in the 2 key elements of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, acceptance of psychological events and commitment to values. It offers the couple the opportunity to identify self defeating patterns of behaviour, encouraging clients to embrace the painful aspects of such negative thinking with self compassion and to accept that suffering and pain are intrinsic part of life and moreover relationship experience. The therapist will help the clients to identify values in all domains of life, perhaps through the use of a Values Compass which identifies 10 separate domains, Work, Leisure, Caregiving, Family, Intimate Relations, Community Involvement, Spirituality, Education and Personal Development, Health and Social network. Clients will be encouraged to identify the reinforcing qualities which support each domain and to then rate how highly they are attending to each domain. This exercise can help couples see where there might be imbalances. By associating each value with it’s reinforcing qualities the clients can see for themselves and for each other how balance in all domains is essential to maintain balance in their relationship or how a lack of balance might lead them to seek compensatory reinforcement from each other. By doing this exercise the individuals concerned can develop a greater understanding of  their needs and how they can get their needs met. In understanding why some areas of their lives have been neglected and recognising the self defeating behaviours which lead to this imbalance they develop self compassion and then extend this to compassion and acceptance for each other. In this kind of therapy couples will learn to recognise and apply flexibility of thought and action, self compassion, compassion, acceptance, mindfulness, self –as –context and values and committed action increasing the potential for balance within themselves and thus enabling a more supporting relationship wit h each other. Whatever approach a therapist takes there will be a recognition that the therapy will be more effective if it is holistic and integrative. The Chrysalis TIME model provides a sound basis from which to start all therapy. It is also essential for the therapist to consider the wider social implications and ethical issues surrounding relationships before proceeding with any kind of therapeutic intervention. Cultural differences, religious beliefs, geographic origins, social status, educational backgrounds and family history all influence how an individual perceives a successful relationship and set criteria and rules for that relationship and thus how they might expect therapy to help when things go wrong. One key consideration in couples counselling which is more relevant in westernised society today is that many relationships are founded on love – or an idea of love, whereas historically marriage contracts were based on other factors such as status, financial security etc. For many people entering into a new relationship one of the driving factors are the feelings and emotions derived from the behaviour of the other person. This as the basis for a relationship is not without its’ problems since initial highly charged emotions and feelings wane as a relationship develops and matures and deeper connections are necessary for quality and longevity. It is also essential that the therapist applies relevant learning of client centred counselling to ensure that the therapy is client led and balanced, so that neither party feels that the therapist is lacking a position of neutrality, whilst maintaining an empathic and understanding approach to both individuals. The skilled therapist will be aware of the power balance  between the 2 parties through careful observation of body language and choice of language by the clients and active attunement. They will maintain an approach of acceptance and non judgement even though their clients may not and will not be drawn by one over the other or allow one to dominate the sessions. All parties must feel safe, demonstrate a willingness to engage in the process and have a clear idea of, ideally, a shared goal for the therapy. An ethical therapist will not see couples clients separately or set up couples counselling where they have previously counselled one party.